Book Review: Memoirs of the Second World War (Part 6)

Operation Torch was the Allied operation to capture French North Africa.  On November 8th, over 650 British and American ships were massed in this region.  Many landings in Algiers proved to be a surprise and encountered no serious opposition.  The Fleet Air Arm saw friendly signals from the ground and landed at Blida airfield, holding it with cooperation of the local French commander till Allied troops arrive.  But there was opposition in the port of Algiers and Oran.  Oran did not surrender until the 10th.  The attack on the Moroccan coast near Casablanca also was difficult, and there was severe fighting for a time.  On November 11th, however,  the French in North Africa surrendered and 100,000 French troops were now on the Allies' side.  

On January 12th, Churchill and Roosevelt as well as Giraud and De Gaulle were present at the Casablanca conference.    

Tripoli was taken by the 8th Army on January 23rd.  General Alexander reported to Churchill, "Sir, the orders you gave me on August [10], 1942, have been fulfilled.  His Majesty's enemies, together with their impedimenta, have been completely eliminated from Egypt, Cyrenaica, Libya, and Tripolitania.  I now await your further instructions."

The Allied troops in North Africa from the east met with those who had landed in the west.  Tunis was captured, and all enemies in Africa had surrendered by May 13th.   

The Russians also had enjoyed a great victory at Stalingrad.

The Americans and British agreed to attack Sicily next, and if that fell quickly, to invade Italy.  The air attack on Sicily began on July 3rd.  On July 10th, the invasion began, and on August 17th General Alexander reported, "By 10 AM this morning, August 17, 1943, the last German soldier was flung out of Sicily and the whole island is now in our hands."  

In Italy, Mussolini fell from power.  The Italians surrendered on September 3rd.  The Germans captured Rome.  The Allies won the Battle of Salerno against the Germans and entered Naples on October 1st.  The Germans formed a line [a "Winterstellung"] in Italy, and gains for the Allies were thenceforward slow.  

Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill met at Teheran for the first conference of the "Big Three."  They agreed on "Operation Overlord" with a Russian offensive to begin at about the same time.  They also agreed on the "Curzon Line" as a border for Poland.

Eisenhower was chosen to command "Overlord" with Montgomery commanding the actual cross-channel invasion force till Eisenhower could transfer to France and assume direct operational command.  

Churchill tells the story of the Chetniks and Partisans in Yugoslavia, and the continuing struggle in Italy.

On June 4th, the Allies entered the heart of Rome.  

Preparations for Overlord continued and deceptions were used effectively to make the Germans believe the Allies intended to land at Pas de Calais.  Bad weather delayed the attack on Normandy from the 5th to the 6th.  Because of the bad weather, the Germans did not believe the Allies would attempt a landing at all.  Thus, the landing at Normandy was a great success.

Stay tuned, Part 7 will be published soon!

Book Review: Memoirs of the Second World War (Part 5)

Churchill traveled to the United States for a meeting with President Roosevelt.  He addressed the US Congress and Canadian Parliament. The Combined Chiefs of Staff Committee was created.  Lord Beaverbrook helped the Americans get more efficient production going, and a United Nations Joint Declaration was issued.  

After Churchill returned to Britain, Singapore fell (February 15, 1942).  It's unconditional surrender to the Japanese was a major disaster.  During the first 6 months of 1942, everything went badly.  The U-boats were taking a very heavy toll.  In 7 months, losses to the U-boats in the Atlantic totalled over 3 million tons while only 14 U-boats were sunk.  However, methods were developed, an Anti-U-boat Committee was formed, and gradually the U-boat menace was lessened.  

Next, Churchill tells the stories of the American naval victories at the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway Island.  

He returned to Washington DC to discuss atomic weapons with the Americans.  While at the White House, he learned that Tobruk in North Africa had surrendered and the Germans had taken 25,000 men prisoners. This was another great disaster.

Rommel crossed into Egypt on June 24th.  There was heavy fighting and General Auchinleck ordered counterattacks.  Rommel's communications were strained and his troops exhausted.  He tried again to break the British line, but his attack was checked.  By the end of July, fighting was at a standstill.

Churchill visited Cairo himself and replaced Auchinleck with General Alexander.  General Montgomery was to fight under him in charge of the 8th Army.  These changes were very well received.

On August 30th Rommel made his last thrust for Cairo.  He failed.  During October, the Allies sunk 40% of Axis shipping to North Africa, and on October 23rd, the British attack began.  The British won a magnificent victory at the Battle of Alamein.  This was a major turning point.  Churchill says, "Before Alamein we never had a victory.  After Alamein we never had a defeat."

Meanwhile, plans were made for "Operation Torch" to liberate French North Africa.  These plans were made with the Americans, and then agreed upon with Stalin.  

Part 6 is coming soon!

Book Review: Memoirs of the Second World War (Part 4)

The next place the Germans struck was Crete.  The geography of the island made its defence difficult.  German paratroopers, gliders, and troop-carriers made an all-out effort, and after heavy fighting, the Germans took the Island.  The British were forced to evacuate thousands of men, and a total of 16,500 were brought back to Egypt.  

General Wavell in North Africa desperately asked for tanks.  His forces were stretched to the limit.  The Iraqis revolted against the British.  But complete victory in that country was quickly gained.  The Australians next captured Damascus, and the Allies occupied Syria.  The battle of Crete, which had cost the British dearly, had ruined the striking power of the German airborne corps.

Nevertheless, Rommel pushed the British back and installed himself Halfaya.  The British operation "Battleaxe" against him failed miserably.  General Wavell was replaced with General Auchinleck.

Hitler was massing troops against Russia, and at 4 AM on June 22nd, Germany declared war against Russia.  The Russian army near the frontier was taken by surprise and quickly overpowered and many Russian planes were caught before they could get into the air.  The Soviets begged Britain for supplies and a second front.  Within a month the Germans had pushed 300 miles into Russia.  But then Hitler and his army disagreed.  The army wanted to concentrate on Moscow, but Hitler determined to split the army into 3 groups to take three different objectives.  With their strength divided, they failed, and the cold Russian winter set in.

The British and Russians invaded Persia.  Theirs was a surprise attack with very few casualties.  A new, peaceful Shah was installed, and Persia was opened as a gateway for supplies to be delivered to the Russians.  

Fighting in North Africa swung in the balance with victories and losses for both sides until finally in December the enemy was in full retreat and there was relief and and rejoicing in the Desert War.  

On December 7th, Churchill heard on the radio that the Japanese had attacked the Americans.  He called President Roosevelt: "Mr. President, what's this about Japan?"  "It's quite true," Roosevelt replied, "they have attacked us at Pearl Harbour.  We are all in the same boat now."

Though sad to hear of the American losses, Churchill was happy to have the Americans on their side.  "Hitler's fate was sealed.  Mussolini's fate was sealed.  The Japanese, they would be ground to powder."  There was "no more doubt about the end."  The War Cabinet authorized a Declaration of War on Japan, and both Houses unanimously agreed on it.  Britain actually declared war on Japan before the U.S. Congress did.  

Part 5 is coming soon!

Book Review: Memoirs of the Second World War (Part 3)

The Germans made plans for the invasion of Britain.  These plans were called "Operation Sea Lion;" however, due to difficulties, they were forced to postpone these plans indefinitely.  

The most decisive "difficulty" for the Germans was their failure to win the Battle of Britain. This battle raged from July 10th through October.  British convoys were harried, aerodrome installations were attacked, and London and centers of industrial production were indiscriminately bombed (from September 7th to November 3rd an average of 200 German bombers attacked London every night).  There were fires throughout London; homes, businesses, and even the House of Commons did not escape the unceasing bombing.  However, Goering made the mistake of switching from one target to the next, granting the first target relief just when it was needed most.  The Royal Air Force fought well and defended their homeland.  The British made small raids on Berlin in retaliation.  

The United States continued to help Great Britain with arms supplies.  But Britain faced a problem, how was she to pay for so many weapons?  The United States started the Lend-Lease policy.  As Churchill said, "There was no provision for repayment...What we had was lent or leased to us because our continued resistance to the Hitler tyranny was deemed to be of vital interest to the great Republic."

In North Africa, the over 300,000 Italians were preparing to attack Egypt.  As soon as war was declared, the British attacked Italian frontier posts and did well in many small, sharp encounters. On September 13, the Italian invasion began.  They invaded in a remarkable parade, and the British gave a fighting withdrawal, taking a heavy toll on the Italians who stopped their advance at Sidi Barrani and settled there for 3 months.

On December 6th, the British army started their advance, and on the 9th, the Battle of Sidi Barrani began.  By 10 o'clock on the 10th, a battalion headquarters reported that it was impossible to count prisoners on account of numbers, but "there were about 5 acres of officers, and 200 acres of other ranks."  Sidi Barrani was recaptured that afternoon and by December 15th, all enemy troops had been driven out of Egypt.  Next, Bardia was taken, then Tobruk.  The Desert Army in 6 weeks had advanced 200 miles and taken 2 seaports, 113,000 POWS, and more than 700 guns.  The great Italian army in North Africa now scarcely existed.  

The Battle of the Atlantic began, and U-boats boded a deadly peril to Great Britain, biting at her lifeline of supplies across the Atlantic.  Ships had to travel in convoys and had to be protected by an escort, but still, losses were great until effective means were developed for fighting the U-boats.

Yugoslavia and Greece fell in spite of Britain's efforts.

And then Rommel was appointed in early 1941 to command German troops sent to Libya.

Rommel believed in the offensive.  The Italians tried to hold him back, but he would not listen to them.  Rommel attacked and took Agheila and then Benghazi.  His attack was a surprise both to his superiors and Great Britain.  Churchill paid him credit by stating, "We have a very daring and skilful opponent against us, and, may I say across the havoc of war, a great general. "

Part 4 will be posted soon.

Book Review: Memoirs of the Second World War (Part 2)

"Winston is back" the British Admiralty telegrammed to the Fleet. As soon as war was declared, France and Britain mobilized and though land and air struggles did not begin at once, naval struggles began immediately.  

Poland fell quickly.  Next, Hitler invaded Norway.  The House of Commons was very angry with the British Government after the fall of Norway.  Chamberlain did not feel he could continue as Prime Minister; he resigned and advised the king to send for Winston Churchill.  The king asked Churchill to form a new government.  A national coalition government was formed, consisting of all parties working together.  On May 13, 1940, Churchill asked the House of Commons for a vote of confidence in the new Administration.  He told them, "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat."  The House gave a unanimous vote of confidence.

Meanwhile, Germany invaded Holland and Belgium on May 10th.  By the 16th, the Germans had penetrated over 60 miles into France.  Britain supported France as long as she could.  But the defence of France was hopeless.  The 28th Belgian Army surrendered, and the British were forced to evacuate from Dunkirk.  The "Deliverance of Dunkirk" was miraculous and 338,000 British and Allied troops safely landed in England.  On June 10th, Italy declared war on the Allies and attacked France as well.  In the east, the Soviet Foreign Minister congratulated the Germans on their "splendid success."  Russia invaded Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia and annexed them to the Soviet Union.  

After Dunkirk, Britain faced a very bad weapons shortage.  The United States helped by sending weapons to both the British and French.  The British prepared for a possible German invasion by arming the populace with whatever guns could be found, as well as sporting rifles, clubs, and even spears.  A "Home Guard" was formed, anti-tank obstacles and ditches were made, and the beaches were mined.  

Paris fell on June 14th and three days later, Petain's government asked the Germans for an armistice.  High French military authorities advised, "In 3 weeks England will have her neck wrung like a chicken."

The French Admiral Darlan agreed to let the powerful French fleet come under German control,  so the British conducted "Operation Catapult"to seize, control, or destroy all of the accessible French Fleet.  Part of the fleet volunteered to join the British, but at other ports the British navy had to fight and destroy the French ships.

The British were now completely alone.  As Churchill puts it, "Certainly we had no lack of foes."

Part 3 is coming soon!

Book Review: Memoirs of the Second World War (Part 1)

Memoirs of the Second World War is an abridgment of Winston Churchill's six volumes of The Second World War, a work largely responsible for Churchill being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953.  The 1065 pages of this book include an epilogue created especially by Churchill for the abridged version.  This book is a must read for anyone who wants to acquire a thorough understanding of the Second World War in a limited amount of time.  Filled with exciting stories and keen insights, the Memoirs give the reader a view of the war through the eyes of one of its greatest protagonists.  Besides the inherent historical significance of this book, its educational value is enhanced by the author's great vocabulary and writing skills.

The first time I tried to read this book (a few years ago), I quit part of the way through.  Why?  Because it was so fascinating I could think of nothing but what I had read.  This year, I decided to try again, and my efforts were rewarded.  Memoirs of the Second World War proved to be a worthwhile and memorable read.

Churchill begins his account with the origins of the war, which he once called the "unnecessary war."  He recounts the mistakes made by the victors of World War I, and the many more errors which led to the rise of Hitler and the alienation of Mussolini from the Allied cause.  During the years before World War II, Churchill warned constantly of the approaching dangers.  His warnings were unheeded.  Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain followed a policy of diplomacy and appeasement with Hitler.  Hitler played along, promising that each European acquisition would be his last.  He did not want war with Great Britain, but he did want more "Lebensraum" (living space) in Europe.

 Hitler disregarded the treaties made after World War I and rearmed Germany.  The Nazis infiltrated and then took over Austria.  They invaded the Rhineland, and demanded the fortified Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia.  Chamberlain met with Hitler and agreed to give it to him.   Still Britain slept; the Prime Minister rested on the Munich Agreement, stating "I believe it is peace for our time."  Then German troops marched into Prague, and March 14th witnessed the dissolution of the Czechoslovak Republic.  Prime Minister Chamberlain had a change of heart.  He didn't like being lied to and cheated. Chamberlain and the House of Commons backed Poland and France with one accord.  All illusions about Hitler were dispelled.

The Soviets made offers to meet with the Allies,  but unfortunately their offers were received coldly.  Britain and France would not agree to a triple alliance with Russia.  So, the Soviets turned and signed an agreement with the Nazis on August 23rd--at the expense of Poland--agreeing to a 10 year peace.  Stalin toasted to the Fuhrer. 

The Polish attitude was, "With the Germans we risk losing our liberty; with the Russians, our soul."  August 25th, Britain proclaimed a formal treaty with Poland.  Hitler postponed his attack to September 1st to give Britain every chance to back down and avoid war.  But the British stood firm.  The German Panzers rolled in   to Poland early in the morning.  Britain was at war.

The time had come for Churchill, whose warnings had been disregarded, to return to the government.  Chamberlain offered him a position in the War Cabinet and the place of First Lord of the Admiralty (which he had held once before from 1911 to 1915). 

Part 2 of this review will be published tomorrow.  

Edit: Due to unforeseen commitments, the author will not be able to post Part 2 as soon as planned. 

Book Review: Economic Freedom and Representative Government

Economic Freedom and Representative Government is a lecture delivered by F. A. Hayek at The Royal Society of the Arts on the 31st of October, 1973, about a year before Hayek was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences.  This lecture highlights the dangers of unlimited government, points out flaws which lead to unlimited government, and offers a theoretical solution.  As always, Hayek's observations are very perspicacious, and though this lecture was written primarily for a British audience (they do not have a written Constitution), we in the United States today find ourselves facing many of the problems he wrote of 40 years ago.

To begin with, Hayek assumes that the majority of the people are in favor of a free market and against government direction; however, most of the groups would like an exception to be made in their favor.

 Take, for example, an Iowa farmer.  He is in favor of the free market, and though he may dislike the idea of giving welfare to thousands of lazy people in the inner city of Chicago, he may deem farm bills and agricultural subsidies fair and right.  The auto manufacturers couldn't care less about agricultural subsidies, but they want their bailouts, the folks in government housing want their handouts, the banks want a share when they're in trouble, and on and on...

 Any political party that wants to achieve and maintain power is forced to use its powers to buy the support of particular groups "not because the majority is interventionist, but because the ruling party would not retain a majority if it did not buy the support of particular groups by the promise of special advantages."  This is the problem.

Hayek explains that the problem is there because of majority rule.  Whatever the majority decides becomes law, and since it is law, it is believed to be just.  "A legislature is now not a body that makes laws; a law is whatever is resolved by a legislature."  Hence, "law is not dependent on justice but determines what is just."  This is a perversion of "law."  The old, real sense of the word is lost.  The legislature is not bound by committing themselves to general rules, and if they want to retain a majority they must "use coercion in the discriminatory manner that is required to assure benefits to particular people or groups."  

Here in the United States, I must note, we had a law which bound the legislatures to general rules...It was called the Constitution.  Davy Crockett understood this and said, "We have the right as individuals to give away as much of our own money as we please in charity; but as members of Congress we have no right to appropriate a dollar of the public money [for special interests or charity]."  The legislatures were bound to specific duties outlined in the U.S. Constitution, but now they've freed themselves from a strict interpretation of the Constitution and make laws to try to control anything and everything, binding and fettering the people instead.  But, I digress...

According to Hayek, "The main subject of this lecture is what we have to do, if we ever again get a chance to stop those tendencies [outlined above] inherent in the existing political systems which drive us toward a totalitarian order"--an unlimited government.

To preserve individual freedom, Hayek says, coercion must be confined to the general rules of just conduct.  "An individual who is bound to obey only such rules of just conduct as I have called these rules of law in this narrow sense [lawyer's law--relating to the laws which apply equally to all and define the protected sphere of each person with which others are prohibited from interfering, made to "prevent conflicts between people who do not act under central direction but on their own initiative, pursuing their own ends..."] is free in the sense that he is not legally subject to anybody's commands, that within known limits he can choose the means and ends of his activities."  

But how?  How can legislatures, especially divided into political parties that only gain a majority by promising special benefits to some groups, resist these pervasive tendencies?  Hayek admits that there never has been a legislature limited to making laws in the narrow sense described in the last paragraph.  

Hayek proposed having two representative assemblies.  One would make laws in the narrow sense and its members, disinterested citizens, would be elected for very long terms and would not be eligible for re-election.  The other would be governed by the laws of the first assembly in directing government proper.

F.A. Hayek admitted that he did not believe his "utopian construction" of an idea for a government would not be realised in the foreseeable future.  However, he decided to promulgate the idea because as David Hume said, "In all cases, it must be advantageous to know what is the most perfect in the kind, that we may be able to bring any real constitution or form of government as near it as possible, by such gentle alterations and innovations as may not give too great a disturbance to society."

I enjoyed reading this lecture.  The problems presented by Hayek are pertinent today.  I think many of these problems would have been prevented in the United States if we had insisted on keeping Congress and the President bound by a strict interpretation of the Constitution.  

And now, my dear reader, I pose the question to you: what do you believe is the best way to face this problem caused by special interests?  What do you think is the most efficient way to preserve the classical meanings of law and justice?  Is a law whatever the legislature decides, and because a majority decides something should be a "law," is it necessarily just?  Think about it.